The Influence of Oscar Wildes Sexuality

Sample details Pages: 23 Words: 6988 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Literature Essay Level High school Tags: The Importance of Being Earnest Essay Did you like this example? Oscar Wilde (1854-1900) was a writer whose homoerotic texts pushed the social boundaries of the Victorian era. Born to a family of unabashed Irish agnostics, the self-proclaimed dandy valued art, fashion, and all things physically beautiful. After receiving a comprehensive education from Oxford, Wilde made a name for himself in London first as a novelist, penning the now famous The Picture of Dorian Gray. A string of successful plays followed, among them The Importance of Being Earnest and An Ideal Husband. Wilde also published a variety of short stories and essays, but is acclaimed by historians for his pioneering influence over the aesthetic movement, aprogression that opposed the accepted Victorian take on art in everyway, shape, and form. Wilde postulated that art existed solely foritself, only for the sake of being art. His play The Decay of Lyingexemplified this tenet best, personifying his distaste for societys proclivities through a conversation between two people in a park.Though he fathered two sons, Wildes marriage fizzled as his personallife continuously hinted at homosexuality. Wildes inability to keephis private life secret proved to be his downfall; a love affair with aprominent nobleman resulted in Wildes imprisonment and expulsion from British social circles. Victorian Britain became increasingly morally rigid, its period marking a time when Britain was experiencing a growthin imperialism and conservative thought. While serving his term for homosexual acts, Wilde wrote the deeply spiritual De Profund is, inwhich he discussed his aspirations of individuality and freedom from the proprietary values that bound late Victorian society. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Influence of Oscar Wildes Sexuality | English Literature Dissertation" essay for you Create order An avant-garde writer and raconteur, Wildes sexuality had a profound effect on his works, influencing imagery and the nature of his characters in both The Picture of Dorian Gray and The Importance of Being Earnest. Wildes sexuality and effeminate nature shaped his relations to aestheticism, which in turn manifested itself in his works moral implications. Wilde frequently employed thinly disguised doubles, representing himself in his work in order to juxtapose anaesthete and a traditionally Victorian society. Wildes aesthetics arestrangely connected to his obsession with Jesus Christ. It is peculiarthat such an unorthodox figure such as Wilde would find so much solaceand inspiration from such a religious source. In De Profundis, Wildes admiration for and comparison with Jesus takes on many levels. Helikens his persecution to Jesus crucifixion, a notion that evokeshubris, especially given Wildes naturally flamboyant disposition.Though not entirely humble, Wildes comparisons are based m ore on parallels drawn between Wildes persecution and the events leading to Jesus martyrdom. Many speculate Wildes eventual baptism and acceptance of Catholicism was a manifestation of imminent deaths madness as the famed author was too radical to accept religion withinthe boundaries of sanity. However, there are critics who contend that Wilde was very much in the mainstream of the intellectual currents of his time, a man clearly aware of what he was trying to achieve in terms of his life and art; in the end, he was willing to accept his newfoundstatus as a pariah, provided he could still create plays and prose. Considered by many to be the most outrageous trial of the century, Wildes fall from grace was so indicative of his progression and the significance of his unique works set in a time between the Victorianera and the modern age (Hoare 4). Wildes persecution reflected aclash of morals and ideals not unlike those faced by the protagonists of his novels. Wildes trial mimicked his imaginative fiction: it was a clash of opposites: of good versus evil, of heterosexualand homosexual, of masculine and feminine, of the safe and thedangerous, of what was seen as morally right or morally wrong (Hoare4). Homosexualitys Influence in The Picture of Dorian Gray and The Importance of Being Earnest Wildes homosexuality had a profound influence over his work. His own experiences and relationships are projected into The Picture of Dorian Gray, and it is widely speculated that the characters Basil, Lord Henry, and Dorian are different aspects of Wilde himself. Wilde wrotethat Basil is how I see myself, Lord Henry how the world sees me, and Dorian how I would like to be (Ericksen 101). The controversy behind The Picture of Dorian Gray was based in the extreme homoeroticism ofthe characters interaction; it is easy to see how Wildes writing elicited such a reaction. The male relationships are surely suggestiveenough to stir even the most open-minded in the Victorian era. Wildessexuality affected the structure of the relationships as well, opening the book with the making of a homosexual love triangle involving Basil,Dorian, and Lord Henry. Basils painting is intimately connected with his adulation of Dorians physical beauty. Dorian, in turn, adores LordHenry, a man of stature who int roduces him into a new coterie. LordHenry, in turn, adores Dorians physical beauty but also his relativeinnocence and the opportunity to mold him into the type of Victoriansocialite everyone will adore. The novel opens with Basils overstated obsession with Dorians goodlooks. Basils sentiments, however, are undeniably romantic. As he paints his masterpiece, Basil is described as looking wistfully at the canvas, a smile of pleasure passing across his face as he lingersover the image he created (Wilde 1962, 20). In the case Basils day dreaming was too speculative a conclusion to make, Wilde provided his readers with interaction between Basil and Lord Henry sufficient enough to establish a romantic attraction for Dorian inside Basil. WhenLord Henry walks into Basils studio, Basil plans on keeping hissubjects identity a secret out of jealousy. Basil immensely likesDorian, and has grown to love secrecy as it ensures that he will nothave to share Dorian with Lord Henry (Wilde 1962, 22). Though it islater discovered that Basil is concerned that Lord Henry will corruptDorian with his cynicism and overdeveloped penchant for amorality, Basil is extremely protective of a man who he has befriend ed solely onthe basis of his physical appearance. He describes to Lord Henry how upon seeing Dorian for the first time his face grew pale, knowing hemet someone whose mere personality was so fascinating that [it could]absorb him if he allowed it (Wilde 1962, 24). Wildes homosexuality is significantly influential not just over thecourse of the plot, but also in the development of characterrelationships. Lord Henrys attraction to Dorian Gray is multi-tiered. Half the attraction to Dorian is on account of his youth, a possiblereflection of Wildes relationship with younger men. The other half o fLord Henrys attraction to Dorian is his ability to mold Dorian into alike-minded socialite, a member of his New Hedonist group. However,Lord Henrys attraction, like Basils is undeniably romantic in nature.Though Lord Henry finds Dorian attractive, Dorians hold over LordHenry does not fully take root until after Basil rambles on and onabout his curious idolatry he has developed, and how he couldnt behappy if he didnt see Dorian everyday; Lord Henry takes seriousnotice of Dorian after Basil confides that he finds the young man to beabsolutely necessary to Basils life (Wilde 1962, 27). Wilde developsLord Henry in this way to stress his association with socie ty at large;most people are not loved by everyone unless they are first loved by afew. Society, Wilde argues, will love whom it is deemed fashionable tolove. Following Basils affirmations and affections, Lord Henryobserves the young Adonis [made out of] ivory as wonderfullyhandsome, with his finely curved, scarlet lips, his frank blue eyes,his crisp gold hair; it comes to no wonder why Basil worshipped him(Wilde 1962, 33). The love triangle develops past Basils death; evenDorian finds himself attracted to Lord Henry. A peculiar observation isDorians loss of composure after observing Lord Henrys romantic,olive-colored face and warm expression; Wilde writes that Dorian is indisbelief at his trepidation upon meeting Lord Henry (Wilde 1962, 38).After all, Dorian is not a schoolboy or a girl (Wilde 1962, 39). As Wildes homosexuality became more apparent, he began leading doublelives. One of his lives was socially acceptable, as society perceived him as a married man with two sons. His other life was one spent amongmale prostitutes, renting houses outside London in which he would haveextramarital, homosexual affairs. The incredible restriction Wildefaced was more because of his homosexuality than his maritalinfidelity. In leading his double lives, Wilde designed four charactersin The Importance of Being Earnest to exude differing degrees ofduality. The multiple personas were a reflection of the masks Wildeused as a means of personal adjustment, a prevailing theme among thefour characters (Ericksen 151). The first character is Jack Worthing, aresponsible man typical of the Victorian era. The legal guardian of ayoung woman, Jack finds it to be increasingly difficult to enjoyhimself through the minor indiscretions that provide the average youngman with such entertainment. As a result of his g uarded nature, Jackcreates his double, an alter ego he claims as his younger brother, whomhe names Ernest. When Jack leaves the country and his responsibilities,he becomes Ernest, a mischievous character in contrast to the composed,model citizen Jack. The second character is Algernon Moncrieff, friendto Jack Worthing and first cousin to the woman Jack intends to wed. Algernon also leads a double life, though his double life involves animaginary friend of sort, a man whom he names Bunbury. The thirdcharacter Wilde incorporates is Gwendolen Fairfax, the object of Jacksaffection. Though she accedes to her mothers will in public, Gwendolenrebels in private, pursuing Ernest without her mothers consent.After Jack plans to wed Gwendolen, she mentions she cannot marry a manwhose name is not Ernest; this creates quite the dilemma for Jack, ashe had originally planned to kill Ernest with another fabrication.The final character, Cecily Cardew, is a ward under her guardian, JackWorthing. Tutore d in the country, Cecily longs for a life outside hercountry estate, falling in love with the deviant Algernon. The doubles are a forward testament to Wildes life as a homosexual inVictorian London. As a Jack among his peers and Ernest among hislovers, Wilde is best personified in Algernon, though is present inboth Jack and Algernon as they are constructed on similar principlesand ideas (Ericksen 151). Both Jack and Algernon lead double lives,hence the similar principles and ideas. However, where Jack andAlgernon differ is the nature of their double lives. Jacks alter ego,Ernest, is someone whom he actually becomes upon entering town.Algernon, on the other hand, claims to be visiting Bunbury, hisimaginary ego. Algernon remains the same; the only thing that changesis his behavior. While both Algernon and Jack are sophisticated men ofthe world, only Jack finds the need to change his identity and life ashe shifts social circles (Ericksen 152). Like the socially accepted individuals in Victorian society, Jack isrigid, morally sound, and never deviant. Initially known to Algernon asErnest, Jacks transformation is almost instant as Algernon reveals hisknowledge of Ernest/Jacks deviance with names. Ernest is wistful andmadly in love with Gwendolen until his true ego, Jack, is revealed. Assoon as Algernon shows Jack/Ernest the cigarette case, Jack showshimself, pointing out how ungentlemanly [a thing it is] to read aprivate cigarette case (Wilde 2005, 12). Algernon, now Jacks foilfollowing Ernests departure, retorts with an epigram truly reminiscentof a dandy, stating the [absurdity in] having hard and fast rules(Wilde 2005, 12). The two characters play off each other from the verybeginning, revealing their intentions. Algernon remains the deviant,bored with his surroundings and endless cucumber sandwiches (Wilde2005, 4). Jack leaves to indulge in the sort of behavior from which heis restricted as he is responsible for Cecily. Like Wilde, who has afamily of his own, Jack cannot overindulge without risking social harmto his family. Ernest, then, is a double play on words; in indulgingones earnest, or true self, one escapes the constrictive Victoriansociety of moral and social obligations. Wildes aim here is to escapethe Victorian moral code, returning to the Hellenistic antiquity ofmale relationships. Strangely, most everyone except Jack longs to see or meet Ernest.Algernon himself assumes the identity of Earnest in his quest to meetCecily. Much to Jacks chagrin, Algernon decides to assume the identityof Algernon simply out of curiosity. Algernon has no ulterior motives;he wants to be Ernest just to be Ernest, a reflection of Wildespredisposition toward universal simplicity. Cecily also longs to meetErnest, as she has heard of his antics and looks forward to a relativeseveral degrees less rigid than her estranged guardian. Gwendolen ismadly in love with Ernest partly due to her empathy for Jacksupbringing, and partly because of her obsession with his name. ThroughErnest, Wilde reveals his wishes of acceptance; he wants people todesire his homosexual identity and accept him not in spite of it, butbecause of it. Victorian values were imposed on every part of culture. Because of thegreat successes and advances felt by the 1860s, it was assumed that thethrone had arrived at something new and worth keeping. An increasinglyprudish era, the Victorian, puritanical movement required that all arthave purpose. Whether to emulate a person, place, or event, art neededa reason to exist. It could be veneration of the object, veneration ofthe genre, or even veneration of the artist, but all art, including thewritten word, was subject to the Victorian standard if it was to beaccepted by the general public. Like so many other movements, theVictorians were faced with the concept that art existed for art, thatits sole end is itself and nothing more. While many mistakenly attribute this movement to Wilde, he in fact didnot create aestheticism, he was merely its vehicle (Gaunt 119). As anIrishman, it was only natural that Wilde would be the catalyst for sucha movement. Ireland was still relatively free of the imperialistexpansion, allowing for a medium of trade most of England could notmatch. Wilde, after all, was not from the industrial wastelands ofLiverpool, Manchester, or London. He was from the dingy magnificenceof Dublin (Gaunt 119). Wildes aesthetics are rooted in his education, primarily hispreoccupation with Hellenistic Greece and the old texts involving malerelationships. When searching for the concept of beauty, he might havegotten his ideas from the great 6th century Hellas, where Wildeperceived the triumph of Greece and great civilization was itscreation and representation of a supreme form of beauty (Gaunt 120).The ancient Greeks may have appealed most to Wilde because of the highpremium they put on male-male relationships. Viewed as the most pure ofall loves, homosexual male love was venerated by great leaders as wellas scholars. The king of the gods and Mount Olympus, Zeus, was known tohave a male lover, a young shepherd by the name of Ganymede. Contrary to the Victorians, who had inherited a set of religiousbeliefs based on faith rather than reason, Wilde had no concretereligious beliefs at all (Ericksen 19). The Aesthetic Movement, ofwhich Wilde was soon to become the representative figure, wasessentially a reaction against the ascendance of Philistinism in artand life (Ericksen 19). Wilde was determined to cultivate his ownindividual impressions of the world (Ericksen 19). Though he quicklybecame the most prominent aesthete, Wildes views were not unique. Hehad previously traveled to France, where he met with names such as deGoncourt, Flaubert, and Huysman, who showed him the depth of sufferingas beauty. After Wilde settled in London in the 80s, he began toshowcase his aestheticism, sporting garb such as plum-coloredvelveteen knickerbockers with perhaps a soft loose shirt and a wideturned-down collar (Ericksen 21). Wilde advocated art as having intrinsic, immeasurable value. Unlike theVictorian stance, art did not have to feature a moral code, teach alesson, or exist as a monument to an ideal supporting morals. Art isart, and exists only to exist for itself. For example, paintings of theLast Supper, though beautiful, existed to be a testament to Jesus orChristianity. Wildes Aestheticism would interpret the Last Supper toexist solely for the purpose of being a beautiful painting. The colors,shapes, and figures would be the central focus as they would representbeauty; the connotation behind twelve disciples sitting around asolitary figure would be dismissible. Wildes sexuality ties indirectlyto the concept of art; one of the reasons Wilde advocated theaforementioned moral system was his relation of the system toantiquity. Homosexual union was not a defiled perversion; Wilde arguedthat it was a sign of progress, like aestheticism. Aestheticism andhomosexuality would be placed in the same context a s other time periodssuch as Hellenistic Greece, Classical Italy (Michelangelo), andShakespearean England. The aforementioned periods involve theperfection of the male form; Wilde believed himself to be in line withthe traditions of old because of his Oxford rearing. Hellenisticaesthetic coincided with Wildes sexuality and his aesthetic movementin the shared view that the male form was the most beautiful.Homosexual relationships were therefore considered an act of beauty,the most revered form of affection possible. Wildes The Decay of Lying is a multi-page testament to his belief inarts greater purpose as having no such purpose. Essentially anextended metaphor for the ill consequences of turning art into amathematical measure, The Decay of Lying describes lying and poetryas arts (Wilde 1997, 7). The metaphor continues, equating art with anexaggeration of reality. True art, Wilde argues through theprotagonists Cyril and Vivian, is so abstract that the real becomesunreadable (Wilde 1997, 13). The nature of art and beauty is soabstract that nature and life are meant to imitate it. The dangers of regarding art as a moral calculus are detailed in ThePicture of Dorian Gray. The strange stasis in which Dorian findshimself—the state where his self-portrait shows his aging and thenegative effects of his actions—is a wonderful example of Wildesaesthetics in motion. The story unfolds as Dorian is sitting in frontof Basil; Basil is seen pondering the sheer physical beauty of thescene in front of him. The true aesthetic, Basil seeks out thebeautiful solely because it is beautiful. He becomes enamored withDorian only because of his beauty. On the other hand, Lord Henry findsDorian irresistible because of the potential socialite he sees in amind that has yet to be molded. Basil the aesthete warns Lord Henry,imploring him not to make a cynic out of something beautiful; in thiscase, Basil is ultimately requesting Lord Henry to take caution in hisapproach to Dorian. Basil wants to preserve Dorian the way he isbecause he finds him beautiful, where Lord Henry wan ts access toDorians private time so he can mold something new and different.Dorian becomes a work of art, manipulated by Lord Henry, killing Basil,the aesthete. Later in the novel, Lord Henry gives Dorian a yellow book, one with notitle that is presumably about art and philosophy (Ericksen 115).Dorian becomes obsessed, using it as a Bible with which he leads hiswhole life. In the end, Dorian dies, having gone mad. This is anunequivocal warning from Wilde to those who would pervert the course ofart (Victorians). Wilde shows the reader what happens when art is takenout of context and into a completely inappropriate light. Moreover, itshows how damaging the Victorian approach is; Dorian is unable tochange his ways. Shortly after his inhuman treatment of Sibyl, heattempts to reform, only to find the painting smirking back at him.This is a reflection of the unyielding nature of Victorian society; itis a reflection of Wildes suffocation and inability to move freely,creatively, or inspirationally in the context of British society at theclose of the 19th century. Just like Dorian, Wilde cannot expresshimself freely; though he had a chance in the beg inning of the novel,Dorian did not follow the poor artist Basil. He instead opted toconform to the higher-ranking Lord Henry, whose coterie led Dorian tohis death. Once in the clutches of Lord Henry, Dorian was fullysupplicated to the mercy of his manipulator. Lord Henry almostimmediately changes in his affections for Dorian, the extremedifferences being Dorians perception as an Adonis in the beginningand as an unrecognizable, withered, man who is unidentifiable untilthey check his rings. Wildes third play, An Ideal Husband makes use of the witty banterknown as epigrams to reveal the darker side of Victorian values in atongue-and-cheek fashion. The whole play is an epigram of sorts,exemplifying the imperfections of the Victorian bourgeois by mockinglyportraying the inefficacy of their incorporation into Wildes idealsociety. The traditional Victorian values Wilde mocks in An IdealHusband are devotion, forgiveness, sacrifice, loyalty, moralintegrity, and a composed disposition, all traits that Wilde subvertsin his character portrayals. Though Sir Robert, the ideal husband,finds himself at the disadvantageous end of blackmail, his past doesnot warrant Wilde to present him as vile or duplicitous, as Lord Goringpostulates to Lady Chiltern that every man of every nature [has]elements of weakness (Wilde 2004, 27). The play, however, becomescentered around a conflict caused by [Lady Chilterns] unyieldingmoral rigidity (Ericksen 142). Sir Robert faces a moral dilemma in hiscop ing with Mrs. Cheveleys blackmail. Wilde makes a useful point inthe Sir Roberts circumstances; on one hand, Sir Robert is faced withmaking public his dark and relatively shameful past, thereineffectively nullifying Mrs. Cheveleys threats. On the other, he mustdeal with a Puritanical wife who cannot forgive anyone who has done awicked or shameful deed, including Sir Roberts possible complicity(Ericksen 141). Would an ideal husband accede to the blackmail, thereindenying his wifes request to challenge Mrs. Cheveley? In either event,Sir Roberts relationship is put in jeopardy. He can either lie to hiswife, giving in to Mrs. Cheveley and compromising his marriage, or hecan make his past public domain, marring the perfect public image hiswife so treasures. Ironically, the couples social coterie perceivesSir Robert as the ideal mate, a man who, until his blackmail, was knownfor his impeccable reputation. Even his private life with Lady Chilternwas blissfully free of blemishes. Sir Roberts reputation andrelationship with his wife, however, could have been saved by a simplelie. Had he never revealed the truth to his wife and given in to Mrs.Cheveley, giving in to her will, Lady Chiltern wouldnt have been oneto know the better. An ideal husband in this case would therefore lie;for Wilde, the Victorian moral impetus lies not with adhering to thetraditional values, but rather in maintaining the facade of keepingvalues in general. Ironically, Lady Chiltern learns of her husbandspast all the same, [castigating] him and [rejecting] his please forforgiveness (Ericksen 141). No amount of marital maneuvering can spareSir Robert. In the end, it is Lord Goring who confronts Mrs. Cheveleyabout Sir Roberts blackmail; he is the only empowered character as hespeaks and acts under no false pretenses. While he is far from perfect,chastised by his father for dancing until four oclock in themorning, Lord Goring is Wildes idealist—he is an art lover, whosewitty repartee is surpass ed only by his willingness to fight Mrs.Cheveley. One of Wildes most effective comic devices is his employment ofepigrams, and more comical still is his utilization of Vicomte deNanjacs malapropisms. The French Attachà © in London, Nanjac representsWildes interpretation of those not fortunate enough to be born elite;Nanjac is easily recognized by his adoration of society and hisAnglomania (Wilde 2004, 4). His malapropisms are a reflection of thesad attempts of many to engage in epigramic banter, the object of LordGorings successful use of epigram. A ridiculing character, WildesNanjac is one whose blind aspiration to join a society hampers hisvision and taste, therein earning him the scorn of the more capableLord Goring. Wildes assault on the Victorian bourgeois is personified best by theduality of his characters. Sir Robert, for example, presents a publicmask of absolute personal integrity but has actually built his fortuneand career upon a deception (Ericksen 144). An almost hero, Sir Robertis a manifestation of Wildes implications regarding a relativelyinnocent mans subjugation under society. Lord Arnheim, Sir Robertsformer co-conspirator, first seduces Sir Robert with his doctrine ofwealth, elucidating his view that controlling others is lifesgreatest attribute (Ericksen 142). Mrs. Cheveley displays this best asLord Arnheims theoretical protà ©gà ©e; the two are almost Machiavellianin their manipulation (Ericksen 145). Where Lord Arnheim seduced SirRobert by playing to the discrepancy between his noble birth and modestfinancial holdings, Mrs. Cheveley is absolutely ruthless in herwillingness to wreak havoc on all aspects of Sir Roberts married lifein order to secure her investments. In his surr ender to the wills ofthe two manipulators, Sir Robert becomes an ideal human, one whoseproclivity to err alienates him from society. By succumbing to the twoprominent materialists, Sir Robert embodies Wildes disdain for thefinancial drive of Victorian social coteries; contrary to theart-collecting Sir Robert, the female villain has no pleasures outsidecontrol and exploitation. Wilde addresses the lack of humanity in Victorian society, personifiedby the promulgation of perfection among the social elite. In the firstAct, Mrs. Marchmont and Lady Basildon discuss their unfortunate maritalsituation. Lord Goring notes they are married to the most admirablehusbands in London, to which Mrs. Marchmont responds that theirhusbands perfection is exactly what [they cant stand]; there isnot the smallest element of excitement in knowing [them] (Wilde 2004,10). In this sense, the true Sir Robert, the one susceptible tosuggestion and whose past compromises his future, becomes the idealhusband. Wilde suggests all Victorians wear masks, alternate identitiesthat shield them from being human and enjoying existence. The idealmarriage is manifested best by the speculative union of Mabel Chilternand Lord Goring, who at the plays close reject the common Victorianroles and morals previously discussed. Wildes Victorian surroundings were instrumental in his development ofaesthetics, but were unfortunately not tolerant of his private life. Acontroversial figure, Wilde was homosexual, and had an ongoing affairwith a younger nobleman by the name of Lord Alfred Douglas. LordDouglas father, enraged at his sons homosexual relationship withWilde, accused Wilde of being a sodomite, a grave offense in GreatBritain at the time. Though acquitted in his first of two trials, Wildewas later sentenced to serve two years hard labor on theaforementioned charges. First imprisoned in Londons Wandsworth prison,Wilde was denied pen and paper until his transfer to Reading Gaol,where he eventually wrote De Profundis. While Wilde revealed hisfascination with the figure of Christ [throughout] his literary career,only in De Profundis did he actually make [Christ] a part of hisaesthetic system (Ericksen 156). A dramatic monologue on spiritualityand society, De Profundis features several metaphors likening Wil de toChrist. Wilde felt his unjust imprisonment made him a martyr; uponinitial circulation of rumors regarding his sexuality, Wilde could haveleft London for France, therein spared persecution. Unlike Hamlet, whobecame a spectator to his own tragedy, Wilde the Christ-figureactively sought out what he perceived as his end (Wilde 2003, 28).Where Christ accepted his fate for the benefit of mankind, Wilde was aself-convinced saint and martyr for art and what he perceived to be thethreatened aesthetic movement. Having passed through every mode ofsuffering, Wilde was convinced that his redemption would be realizedthrough his incarceration and subsequent release, upon which his newfound humility would help him rise again (Wilde 2003, 4). Just asmankind would redeem itself through the trial and crucifixion of Jesus,Wilde felt society would be redeemed through his incarceration. Hecontinued, developing his incarceration to salvation, likeninggreatness to requisite sorrow. Wilde admired Jesus for having realizedhis calling as being completed, reaching fulfillment upon its end(Wilde 2003, 19). Marveling at his situation, Wilde mused on theincredulity of a young Galilean peasant imagining that he could bearon his shoulders the weight of the world, including all the worldspast sins as well as what had yet to be done and suffered (Wilde2003, 13). Jesus death and resurrection was that toward which Wildeaspired, conceding that imprisonment was most likely an act ofretribution for the fanciful and carefree life he led previously.Incarceration, then, was Wildes means of atoning for the errant lifehe might possibly have led upon his release. He hoped his relationshipwith Lord Douglas would be forgiven, and longed for societysacceptance. Wilde could claim on [his] side that if [he realized] what[he had] suffered, society should realize what it [had] in turninflicted; with a mutual cognizance shared between Wilde and society,he hoped there would be no bitterness or hate on either side (Wilde2003, 7). Just as Jesus attempted to win over his captors andaggressors through his death and resurrection, Wilde hoped to pacifysocietys enmity by paying his social dues in prison. Wilde evenlikened the course of his lifes events to those leading up to Jesusmartyrdom. For example, Jesus was given direction by God the Father andcondemned by Man. Wilde, in turn, ascribes the two great turningpoints in [his] life as when his father sent [him] to Oxford, andwhen society sent [him] to jail (Wilde 2003, 6). Wildes foreknowledgeof an impending criminal proceeding did not dissuade him, just as thedisciples could not sway Jesus acceptance and willingness to die onthe cross. Neither Wilde nor Jesus could ignore their calling, nomatter the grisly end. As a sinner, Wilde conceded that he had toaccept the fact that martyrs were equally persecuted for the good aswell as for the evil committed (Wilde 2003, 7). However similar to Jesus Wilde would assert himself to be, there weredefinite discrepancies in De Profundis that could testify to Wilde asan admirer of Jesus rather than his attempted emulator. Wildepostulated that Jesus saw Man in the same fashion as the aestheticmovement saw art; Man existed simply to exist. Wilde wrote that Christregarded sin and suffering as being [beautiful] in and of themselves,that such a notion was the dangerous idea that led Christ to hisdemise (Ericksen 157). Just like Christ, Wildes own dangerous ideathat ran against the Victorian grain was what led to his downfall.Wilde also saw his imprisonment as a period of transition. Hisindictment of the Greek gods as deities emulating humans indicatedhislife prior to imprisonment; Wilde labeled the Olympian gods as ableto reach greater heights (Wilde 2003, 17). Each Olympian representeddifferent aspects of humanity that, when indulged by Wilde, resulted inincarceration. In his simile, Wilde indirectly likens himself to eachgods moral flaws. He lauds Zeus for not being able to resist mortalmans daughters and Hera for her pride and peacocks, a catharticevaluation of the Victorian bourgeois who imprisoned him (Wilde 2003,17). Wilde also attributes his former peers to Apollo and Athena, eachof whom failed to forgive. Apollo slaughtered the mortal Niobes sons,leaving Niobe childless for her hubris in claiming her childrenrivaled the offspring of Leto (the mother of Apollo and Artemis);Athena turned Arachne into a spider for having claimed to be moreskilled with the loom than the goddess of wisdom and crafts (Wilde2003, 17). In describing the society that bore him, Wilde becomesimperfect, as his reformation requires penance as a medium of change.By attributing himself and his society to the Greek gods, Wildedifferentiates himself from Jesus. Jesus never required crucifixion toattain perfection—he was born perfect and lived without sin. Wilde, onthe other hand, is punished not on behalf of ano ther (though it can besurmised that his imprisonment kept the young, impressionable LordDouglas out of jail), but for his own social transgressions. Wilde alsoheld great contempt for Lord Douglas, as De Profundis was more ascathing letter from a jilted lover than a philosophical testament toWildes self-improvement. Wilde often lamented his situation, spitefulthat for him, the beautiful world of color and motion [had] been takenaway, while Bosie (Lord Douglas) walked free among the flowers(Gardiner 145). De Profundis becomes conciliatory towards its end,however, as Wilde follows through with his original assessment thatterrible was what the world did to [him], but worse still was what[he] did to [himself] (Wilde 2003, 3). Unlike Jesus, Wilde is somewhatself-hating, embittered by his social persecution despite his greatcontributions in the aesthetic movement. His imprisonment wasultimately brought on by his own charges; following his falling outwith the Marquess of Queensbury (Lord Do uglas father), Wilde pressedlibel charges and lost, opening himself up to legal scrutiny. In theend, it was his own defense that cost him his freedom, unlike Jesus wholived to die, fully cognizant of an inescapable fate. Though heexperienced a form of martyrdom, Wildes self-comparisons to Jesus arelimited, and he shifts from indirectly likening his life and its recentevents to those of Jesus to aspiring to become Jesus-like (in essence,more Christian). Rather than claim to follow in Jesus footsteps, Wildepurports that he has suffered just as Jesus suffered, and in doing sobecame a better man just as Jesus did. Wilde claims to have become adeeper man is the privilege of those who have suffered (Wilde 2003,21). Despite Wildes De Profundis presentation of himself as Jesus,there are a great number of instances that involve his own supplicationbefore and admiration of Jesus as opposed to his presumption ofequality with Jesus. Wilde admires Christ for his refusal to stone MaryMagdalene, b ringing shame on her persecutorsin his statement suggesting that those without sin cast the stones tocondemn her. In his tirade against the Victorian bourgeois, Wilde alsovenerates Christ for advocating the poor; Wilde described prison assomething that earns sympathy from the poor and earns the rich thestatus of pariah (Wilde 2003, 2). The poor, Wilde argued, were asimpler people who were closer to perfection. Jesus, after all, was notborn rich, but the son of a poor carpenter. In the waning years of hisimprisonment, Wilde began to consider his incarcerated state as areturn to simplicity, and in simplicity becoming closer to perfection. Wildes comparison to Christ was perhaps overtaken by the method inwhich he transformed Christ, reinterpreting him as an artisticpersonality (Ericksen 156). It is odd that Wilde would place Jesus onsuch a pedestal, as he remained an avowed agnostic until the twilightof his life. In fact, Wilde goes out of his way to denigrate theChristian faithful to a degree, describing his faith as somethingsuperior because it is tangible, that his gods dwell in temples madewith hands; Wilde asserts that only within [actual] experience is[his] life complete (Wilde 2003, 5). Wildes adulation could also beconstrued as a comparison of himself with Christ as a purely literaryfigure; his assertions were not hubris, but merely the lamentations ofa writer recognizing a universally acclaimed protagonist in the worldsmost renowned tragedy. By placing Jesus in the context of a literaryfigure rather than reading Wildes comparisons from a religiousperspective, the reader is further able to understand the contex t inwhich Wilde worked. Wilde never deified himself, though he did perceivehimself as a defiant artist intensely conscious of his cultural roleas an innovator of art (Erickson 13). De Profundis waivers between theveneration of Christ and the open advocating of agnostics, with Wildeoften professing that agnosticism has its martyrs and should reap itssaints just as Christianity has (Wilde 2003, 5). In this respect,Wilde transcends the figure of Jesus in his simplicity; Jesus deathand the events of his life were a leap of faith, whereas Wildes beliefsystem and his life, cultural contributions, scandals, and downfallwere historically documented. His actual experiences previouslydiscussed were in themselves defined as real in their sorrow. For a manwhose fop and dandy were all encompassing, Wildes redemption wouldnot be nearly as invigorating as that of Christ (Gardiner 15). WhereChrist was promised a seat at the right hand of God Himself, Wildesfuture upon release was one of almost guar anteed estrangement. Wildes homoerotic imagery and context are unique; they served as aneffective device in the establishment of Dorian as both an evilcharacter and one manipulated by another. The homoeroticism, forexample, first serves to establish Dorian in a protective love affairwith Basil, where Dorian is portrayed as innocent, his face bright withthe naà ¯vetà © that can only be attributed to youth. That Dorian is drawnto Lord Henry in a sexual manner makes his fall from grace all the moredecadent, giving the reader the impression that Dorian was stolenaway from the clutches of youthful exuberance. Without the homoeroticsubtext, there would be no logical explanation for Lord Henrysattraction to Dorian, or Dorians willingness to follow Lord Henry.Though Dorian could be portrayed as having left Basil behind so as toaspire to greater social heights, the manner in which Wilde useshomosexual tensions prompts the reader to make different conclusions,ones that are steeped in suspicion and communicated i n whispers. Thetaboo of same-sex relationships is cast aside with the introduction ofSybil, but it remains in the back of the readers mind, solidified byseveral characters effeminate preoccupation with physical beauty.Wildes own sexuality manifests itself in three stages among the threemale characters; first, the image of Basil, the affirmed homosexual wholives a detached life. Second is the image of Lord Henry, the privatehomosexual who is an irrevocable face in the local coterie. Third isthe image of Dorian, who begins innocently, but upon realization of hishomosexuality and his attempt to become assimilated into societyperishes against his own will. Wildes sexuality is thereforeinstrumental in The Picture of Dorian Gray. The Importance of Being Earnest is a reflection of Wildes duality;contrary to Dorian, who cannot exist detached from or assimilated intosociety, Jack is an amalgamation of Basil and Lord Henry. His dual lifeis revealed, but only by another who also wishes to take part in socialduplicity. In The Importance of Being Earnest, Wilde communicates theimpetus of self-truth as a panacea for unhappiness. Both Algernon andJack are happiest as Ernest as they are free to act as they wish.Unhampered by the Victorian society that constricts them, the twoerstwhile-Ernests move, speak, and do as they please. The elaboratelengths to which Jack resorts is a reflection of the life Wilde musthave led behind his familys back; when Jack assumes the role ofErnest, he risks crossing his stories, getting his two livesintertwined in the form of Cecily and Gwendolen meeting. Here, Wildessexuality affects both Algernon, the representation of the dandy andfop, and Jack, whose secret life is a metaphor for homose xualityrepressed. Both are hampered by Victorian restrictions; Algernon facedthe shirking of his familial duties, whereas Jack had to remain a modelindividual for his supposedly sheltered ward to follow. Only Jack is inperil of being discovered, however; Wilde attempts to communicate theimportance of being true to ones self, as Jack is the only characterof the two men to assume an entirely new identity. As Algernon uses hisfabricated person as an excuse to leave his surroundings, he is neverput into the same dilemmas as Jack. In the case of The Importance of Being Earnest, Wildes sexual constraint was an important factor inanalyzing the play. Wildes aestheticism was highly influenced by his sexuality. Heapproached aestheticism the same way he approached his male relations,perceiving art simply to observe beauty. Beauty to Wilde is exactlywhat Dorian was to Basil; beauty was a necessity, something Wilde couldnot do without. In his attempts to articulate aesthetics, Wilde mayhave gotten lost in his purpose. Victorian thought was the standardagainst which to rebel, begging the question of Wildes motives. Washis aesthetic perspective a manifestation of a new dimension of hisanti-Victorian sentiment? Wilde often satirized other aesthetics,claiming that he would only attack the unmanly oddities whichmasquerade in its likeness (Gardiner 43). The irony behind Wildessatirizing contention is that determining those who are unmanlyoddities requires the same logical selection process as mandated byVictorian interpretation. For example, a Victorian observing art wouldemploy criterion to evaluate the piece as a decent work of art.Simila rly, Wildes decision as to what constitutes aesthetic thoughtwould require criterion to evaluate the thought or work purported to bepart of the aesthetic movement. While Wildes sexuality was onlyeffectively used to correlate Hellenistic antiquity, it still wasuseful in understanding the shift in perception. Whether or not Wildecame to the conclusion that the Victorian system was inferior,subsequently adopting aestheticism is a different instance than Wildeadopting aestheticism solely to oppose the Victorian system. Moral implications are much more concrete than art interpretation; inAn Ideal Husband, Wilde does not attempt to spoon-feed his audiencehomoerotic suggestion. Instead, Wilde focuses on Victorian society as awhole, portraying it in the superficial light he felt appropriate. ThePuritanical attitudes relayed by Lady Chiltern are portrayed asimpossible standards. The ideal husband is then the imperfect,unpredictable man who concedes to his own weaknesses. This is bestevidenced by Wildes warmer tone toward Lady Basildon and Mrs.Marchmont, an almost sympathetic tone to their plight of drab husbandsand perfect marriages. Wildes sexuality does not traditionally comeinto play. However, when perceiving homosexuality as an imperfectionPuritan society shuns, Wildes sexuality fits well but lacks thecreative outlet to fully present itself as a viable factor. Thoughsexuality was an important part of Wildes works, it was notinstrumental in the proprietary An Ideal Husband. However, Wilde didsuccessf ully present himself in the form of Lord Goring, the dandy ofthe play. Moral implications in An Ideal Husband had little do withsexuality, but had everything to do with Wildes disdain of theVictorian bourgeois social circles. Wilde as a Christ figure is a notion that draws several conclusions.First, it is not Wildes sexuality that likens him to Jesus. Wildessexuality comes into play only as the factor of his persona that earnedhim persecution and eventual prison time. Simultaneously, Wilde as aChrist figure was a feasible notion only in his martyrdom for art;where Christ was nailed to a cross, died, and was reborn, Wilde wasimprisoned, was released, and reborn. Wildes speculation on his newlifestyle post prison-release was one of humility, much in the samemanner as Jesus humility throughout the history of his encounters withhis disciples. A somewhat wanton display of hubris, Wildes Christcomparisons are a bit lofty and overly ambitious. Wilde perceivesChrist from an agnostic point of view, evidenced by his relativeflexibility in putting himself in the same contact as the Son of God.However, both Jesus and Wilde shared parallels, such as the eventsleading up to their incarcerations. Oscar Wildes homoerotic texts, aesthetics, Christ comparisons andmoral implications were largely the result of his sexuality, though itcan be argued equally as effectively that Wildes writing was affectedby anti-Victorian sentiment. Had he been alive now, in an age wherehomosexuality is often as accepted as racial differences, it isunlikely that he would have gained the notoriety that he did while inprison and following his release. Though he died a pauper, Wildesworks were revolutionary in their latent content, the dandy style, andthe fact that they addressed issues such as homosexuality in a timewhere society was becoming steadily more conservative. As with anyauthor, Wildes works are best understood when taking intoconsideration his biography and history, including his sexuality. Ericksen, Donald H. Oscar Wilde. Boston: G.K. Hall Co., 1977. Gardiner, Juliet. Oscar Wilde: A Life in Letters, Writings, and Wit. Collins Brown, Ltd., 1995. Gaunt, William. The Aesthetic Adventure. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Co., 1945. Hoare, Philip. Oscar Wildes Last Stand: Decadence, Conspiracy, and theMost Outrageous Trial of the Century. New York, Arcade Publishing,Inc., 1997. Wilde, Oscar. An Ideal Husband. Champaign: Project Gutenberg Press,2004. Wilde, Oscar. De Profundis. Champaign: Project Gutenberg Press,2003. Wilde, Oscar. The Decay of Lying. [online] Available at:www.ucc.ie/celt/published/E800003-009/text002.html Cork: Corpus ofElectronic Texts, 1997. Wilde, Oscar. The Importance of Being Earnest. Champaign: Project Gutenberg Press, 2005.

Mental Health Vs. Health Organization - 1325 Words

Mental Health Vs. Health Organization Human services field is a very broad field. There are many different types of human services organizations out there. To names a few of human services organizations are mental health, health, education, child welfare, and etc... Under each organization there are different human services workers with different tittle and responsibilities; to name a few of human services workers are psychologist, high school guidance counselor, teacher, rehabilitation specialist, child-protective-services worker, shelter director, hot-line worker, and etc... Even though the titles and responsibilities are different, they are all human services workers providing to serve the needs of people. Mental Health is all about†¦show more content†¦Due to understaffed and underfunded in the psychiatric hospitals, harsh criticism toward the institutionalized care increased. It was also because of changes in the attitudes of staff and abusive practices in the hospital (Leff, 2001, p. 25). The movement of deinstitutionalization reforms from the asylum-based to community-oriented care. Mentally ill people moved from psychiatric institutions to community mental health centers. Even though there were positive reports about the outcome of community-based mental health programs, other reports found opposite. â€Å"Many experts hope that by improving community-based programs and expanding inpatient care to fulfill the needs of severely mentally ill patients, the United States will achieve improved treatment outcomes, increased access to mental health care, and better quality of life for the mentally ill† (Early History, 2000-2013, p. 2). A health service is to protect and improve the health of individuals and communities. There was no healthcare coverage for individuals and communities before 1920 (Healthcare in US, 2014). Doctors were not knowledgeable about many of the diseases and did not charge much to the patients. At that time, there were not a lot of health insurance providers, and many people had to pay for everything. Later on, when doctors became knowledgeable about the diseases and treatments became effective, doctors charged more money to the

Auditing and Assurance Organizations and Society

Question: Discuss about the Auditing and Assurance for Organizations and Society. Answer: Introduction: The Lehman bank was the fourth largest bank in the US and the business was suffering from the financial risks. During the first decade of its operation, cotton was traded by the company and eventually it took up the banking and became the investment bank. Mergers, acquisition, underwriting of the securities and issuing of the securities were mainly the financial services provided by the investment banks. Such investments bank were being prone to risks and they were inherent risks and the failure of Lehman brothers to manage such risks forced it into bankruptcy. The failure of Lehman brothers was not only attributed to the banking but it was also due to the human failure incorporated in its corporate governance. The economies and the financial market was devastated due to the failure of investments bank. The bank made changes to its investment strategy in order to compete in the extremely competitivemarket of the investment banking. The bank focused on long term investment. The bank h eavily issued mortgages and subprime loans. The Lehman brothers invested all the proceeds from the borrowing in the mortgage market when the housing market was booming. The mortgage market was over concentrated which made the bank vulnerable and there was a downfall in the price of housing (Fernando et al.2012). How auditors were liable in the Lehman collapse: The investors of the company were misled and the directors of the company were mainly responsible for it. The auditors of the Lehman brothers concluded that the financial statements does not suffer from any flaws and is appropriate. The company employed the fraud for reporting the financial statements and this was done to intentionally conceal the fundamental weakness of the investment bank (Mishkin and White 2014). The auditors of the company did not detect such defect and it was under appreciated for over a substantial period of time. The bank in order to obtain the short term loan by using its own securities as collateral made use of repo which is the financial tools used by all the financial institutions. The repurchase agreements were regarded as the secured borrowings and it was thought that the accounting of these repo was done as per the US accounting standards. The Lehman brothers were able to convince the auditors that the overcollaterizing the repurchase agreement would br ing the economic benefits to the company. The acceptance of the auditors regarding the loans overcollaterizations to the sales was mainly responsible for the collapse of the company (De Haas and Van Horen 2012). The case of Lehman brothers are greatly related and linked with the global financial crisis as it leads to the drastic downfall of the global economy. The cost of the collapse was huge and the global economy was significantly impacted. The global finance meltdown was triggered by the collapse of the Lehman brothers. It collapse led to the financial crisis and were the cause of great recession form which the world has not recovered fully till now. The emerging markets were greatly affected by the collapse of Lehman brothers. The markets of Europe and US were hit hardly. The banking system of UAE and its liquidity crunch was exacerbated by the shock waves sent by the Lehman in the global financial markets. Kuwait was another Middle East country to be hardly hit by it as the emerging investment companies went insolvent because of the fall in the value of the assets and the drying up of the funding of these companies. The market of debt was broken because the unhedged derivative position were wiped off with the fall of Lehman brothers. The debt holders, equity holders, and the derivative trade that were in counterparties with the Lehman was broken due to its failure. Therefore, the collapse of the Lehman brothers has directly led to the economic crisis (Caplan et al.2012). Auditors role in term of liabilities The auditors are held liable for the civil as well as criminal offences. The auditors role for a company is different from that of firm. The liabilities of the auditors arise on account of the duties for which he is held responsible. The liabilities of the auditors are divided into four parts. This is civic liability, criminal liability, liability of libel, and the liability towards the third parties (Lu and Whidbee 2013). Under the civic liability, the auditors are mainly held liable for the negligence. If the company suffers loss on account of auditors then he has to make good the loss suffered by the company. He cannot be held liable for the loss suffered by the company when there is no negligence on his part. The various act are used to hold the auditors liable under the criminal offences. The income tax act, banking companies act, life insurance act, Indian penal code act. The auditors is held liable only to the employer and he is not held liable to the third parties in general. If the auditor has made any statement without any malice and is bonafide then he would not be held liable for the statement made by him (Iatridis 2012). Use common law cases for auditor liabilities The auditors under the common law can be held liable for negligence, fraud, breach of contract. The limitation of the exposure to the liabilities by the auditors and the application of the law in the profession of audit is depicted by the several cases. It can be explained with the help of following cases: The case of Caparo industries Plc versus Dickman. The company persuaded the firm Touche Ross to purchase the share of the firm called Fidelty Plc. The decision to purchase the shares was based on inappropriate disclosure of the companys account that overvalued it. The auditors of the company fidelity owned potential investors as duty of care. The claim made was not successful. The following conclusion was made by the house of lord that the purpose of accounts was of no reasonable knowledge to the auditors and the shareholders exercise their rights as the accounts were prepared for the existing shareholders. This case provides the guidance for providing the duty of care between the third party and the auditors. The imposition of the liability on the Caparo is reasonable and fair. There is a proximity of relationship between the Caparo and the Fidelity Plc. The case of Royal Bank of Scotland and its auditor Bannerman Johnstone MacLay. The company has lost 13 million to its insolvent client APC Ltd and the loss was in regard to the facilities unpaid over draft. The claim was made by the company that the Bannerman was not able to detect the material misstatement and the fraudulent activities in the APC Ltd account. The company used to receive the audited financial statements every year and on the basis of this the company used to provide the banking facilities. The intention of the RBS to make the lending decision using the audited financial statements of APC ltd, which the auditing firm would be aware of the banking facility of the APC ltd. This was the reason that the duty of care was owed by the RBS. The judgement passed by the court was that significant factor which contributed to the duty of care owed to them was the disclaimer of liability and its absence in regard to the third parties (Ellis et al. 2014). Another case is about the Kripps case. The liability of the auditors regarding the third parties which was an upshot of the decision of the Kripps that the auditors can be held liable for the negligence if the auditors is aware of the specific use of the financial statements which have been audited despite the fact they comply with the national reporting standard in the event of financial reporting. The judgement about this matter is that there is uncertainty in the standard which would be considered appropriate to measure the conduct of the auditors. The case of Columbia Coffee and Tea Pty ltd which was held that the auditors hold liability to the third parties and this is because the auditing firm contain the statement in the audit manual that the third parties can rely on the audited reports to make their decision. The judgment and the outcome of the this case was that in the event of the misstatement of the financial statements, the investors has no right to sue the auditors because the duty of care does not exist between the shareholders and the auditors unless the facts of case comes with the special circumstances. The auditors would not have duty of care even if he is aware of the fact that the investment decisions would be made on the basis of the audited financial statements (Gimbar et al. 2016). Potential liability that auditors face as a result of the global financial crisis: In the event of financial crisis, the mistrust is reflected in the financial system and such event might be regarded as an opportunity to rectify some financial system aspects, that is the drawbacks which has led to such event. The liability of the auditor is to evaluate the use of the internal control system. He has the obligation in conducting the audit work to take the accounts of level. The improper manifestation of the internal control system would not enable the auditor to identify the risk of error and fraud. In order to obtain the reasonable assurance on part of the auditors that the financial statements are free form defects and are significantly accurate, the auditors are held liable to perform and plan the audit. Another liability is related to the adjustments and corrections to be made in the financial statements. The auditors have compliance and direct related liability with the reporting of the accounts even though the audited entity has exclusive responsibility of mana gement over it (Brigham and Ehrhardt 2013). There is no difference between the liability of the auditors in the errors detection and the liability in the detection of fraud as per the auditing standards. There are several aspects regarding which the financial system needs increased transparency. The auditors are held liable for identifying the origin of the risks and assessing the risks as this would assist the auditors in super visioning and improving the regulations governing the financial system. The auditors needs to conduct the auditing procedure in accordance with the professional and legal standards as the report generated form the conduction of the audit is send to the owners of the company. The financial auditors assumes a great responsibility when the audit mission is performed by him in terms of the nature of the services which is rendered and the engagement of the audit (Arel et al.2012). The professional skepticisms needs to be exercised by the auditors in the event of determination of the duration, nature and the procedures of the extent of the audit. This also has to be done in the event of evaluating the audit results and the evidence relating to the audit. The most important liability of the auditor is to confirm that the financial information depicted in the financial statements of the company have been reflected correctly and fairly concerning all the transactions and the material aspects and formulating the opinion on such statements which are in aligned with the above declaration made. The potential liability of the auditors may increase if there is any occurrence of the events that took place after the date of the formulation of the balance sheet (Aydin 2013). The controlling of the quality of the audited work is also the liability of the auditors and the auditing company needs to ensure that whatever is being done that is the auditing work, is done well. When auditing the financial statements, the auditors need to consider the same and is liable to prevent such frauds in the implementation of the control system of the company. The auditor has to make sure that the financial statements are not inaccurate of the error and fraud whe n planning and performing the audit. Recommendation: Different scenario were represented by Lehman brothers in identifying and defining the risks related to their business. The company would have avoided a lot of market risks if it had invested in correlated assets heavily rather than investing only in mortgage assets. The consequence of the collapse of the bank could have been less fatal if the bank would have invested in diversified portfolio rather than concentrating its portfolio. The loss would not have triggered if the company would have sold the troubled assets earlier and the control system had received focus. The collapse was mainly attributable to the corporate governance and the inability of the auditors to detect the ongoing scenario. There are sometimes very complicated functions relating to the functioning of the audit. The auditors. Whenever the auditors are forming the opinion on the complicated matters needs to keep in mind the financial consequences of such advice because the clients and the shareholders make the investment decisions based on such decisions. The company needs to save themselves in the event of global crisis and they need to take the correct strategy in delivering to the masses and taking their way out of the financial crisis. The company needs to have brand strategy so that it is able to prevent the damage caused to the reputation of the brand and at the same time imbibing the steps which would help them in restoring the trusts of the consumers. In order to recover a brand from the global crisis, the company needs to follow a communication strategy which would help in building the image of the brand. The company should build the regain the trust of stakeholders using this strategy. Conclusion: The discussion is about the collapse of the investment banking company Lehman brothers and the collapse was mainly attributed to the failure of the corporate governance and the incapability of the auditors in detecting the wrong doing business and forming the false opinion on the basis of which the investors invested in the company. The collapse of Lehman brother had impact on macro and micro level and the company invested their money in complicated investment which needs to be understand as it led to the devastating impact on the financial system and the economy worldwide. The auditors should make it very clear to the clients that their advice is subject to some limitations and if the client is considering it in depth then it would lead him to revise the advice. The auditors need to ensure that the statement issued by the client would bear the name of the auditors only if they have received their consent. This is because most of the third parties base their investment decisions based on the statements issued by the client which relies on the auditors report which they think is financially sounds and well conducted. The auditors need to reduce their exposure to the litigation as this is costing the audit professions heavily. The case also discusses the liability of the auditors in the vent of global crisis and whether they should be held responsible for the downfall of the company. However, it cannot be concluded that the auditors are solely responsible when the company does not conduct its business activities in the true and fair terms. Reference: Arel, B., Jennings, M.M., Pany, K. and Reckers, P.M., 2012. Auditor liability: A comparison of judge and juror verdicts.Journal of Accounting and Public Policy,31(5), pp.516-532. Aydin, A.D., 2013. Role of Accounting and Audit in the Recent Financial Crisis.Technology and Financial Crisis: Economical and Analytical Views: Economical and Analytical Views, p.91. Brigham, E.F. and Ehrhardt, M.C., 2013.Financial management: Theory practice. Cengage Learning. Caplan, D.H., Dutta, S.K. and Marcinko, D.J., 2012. Lehman on the brink of bankruptcy: A case about aggressive application of accounting standards.Issues in Accounting Education Teaching Notes,27(2), pp.33-49. De Haas, R. and Van Horen, N., 2012. International shock transmission after the Lehman Brothers collapse: Evidence from syndicated lending.The American Economic Review,102(3), pp.231-237. Ellis, L., Haldane, A. and Moshirian, F., 2014. Systemic risk, governance and global financial stability.Journal of Banking Finance,45, pp.175-181. Fernando, C.S., May, A.D. and Megginson, W.L., 2012. The value of investment banking relationships: evidence from the collapse of Lehman Brothers.The Journal of Finance,67(1), pp.235-270. Gimbar, C., Hansen, T.B. and Ozlanski, M.E., 2016. The effects of critical audit matter paragraphs and accounting standard precision on auditor liability.The Accounting Review. Iatridis, G.E., 2012. Audit quality in common-law and code-law emerging markets: evidence on earnings conservatism, agency costs and cost of equity.Emerging Markets Review,13(2), pp.101-117. Kothari, S.P. and Lester, R., 2012. The role of accounting in the financial crisis: Lessons for the future.Accounting Horizons,26(2), pp.335-351. Lu, W. and Whidbee, D.A., 2013. Bank structure and failure during the financial crisis.Journal of Financial Economic Policy,5(3), pp.281-299. Milsom, S.F.C., 2014.Historical foundations of the common law. Butterworth-Heinemann. Mishkin, F.S. and White, E.N., 2014.Unprecedented actions: the Federal Reserves response to the global financial crisis in historical perspective(No. w20737). National Bureau of Economic Research. Ojo, M., 2015. Audits, audit quality and signalling mechanisms: concentrated ownership structures.American Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences,1(2). Peecher, M.E., Solomon, I. and Trotman, K.T., 2013. An accountability framework for financial statement auditors and related research questions.Accounting, Organizations and Society,38(8), pp.596-620. Samsonova-Taddei, A. and Humphrey, C., 2015. Risk and the construction of a European audit policy agenda: The case of auditor liability.Accounting, Organizations and Society,41, pp.55-72. Sikka, P., 2009. Financial crisis and the silence of the auditors.Accounting, Organizations and Society,34(6), pp.868-873. Swedberg, R., 2010. The structure of confidence and the collapse of Lehman Brothers.Research in the Sociology of Organizations,30(A), pp.71-114. Wiggins, R.Z., Bennett, R.L. and Metrick, A., 2014. The Lehman Brothers Bankruptcy D: The Role of Ernst Young.Yale Program on Financial Stability Case Study. Xu, Y., Carson, E., Fargher, N. and Jiang, L., 2013. Responses by Australian auditors to the global financial crisis.Accounting Finance,53(1), pp.301-338.

Pragmatics in Comedy free essay sample

Pragmatics in Comedy I. Introduction. Aim. The aim of this paper is to see how characters in various shows flout, violate and infringe Grice’s four maxims in order to create humour. The shows I will be using are Little Britain, Bottom and Blackadder. Terminology. Herbert Paul Grice is considered one of the founders of the modern study of pragmatics, which deals with expressed meaning and implied meaning, in other words what is said and what is meant. Grice claimed that there are two kinds of implicature, in other words the part of an utterance that is meant but not strictly said out loud: conventional implicature and conversational implicature (Thomas 1995:57). Since this paper treats comedy it will mainly focus on conversational implicature. Grice’s four maxims are, if not rules, but way of means to allow us to say things indirectly in order to avoid discomfort when saying uncomfortable things or to imply something without having to actually take a direct stand or viewpoint. We will write a custom essay sample on Pragmatics in Comedy or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page By strictly following the maxims, the conversation in question is pretty straight forward and it is not hard to find the implicature. On the other hand, when one flouts one is more indirect and therefore generates an implicature. Grice’s four maxims are: Quantity: Information. Not too much, nor too little. Quality: Truth. Do not lie. Relation: Relevance. Stick to the topic. Manner: Clarity. Be brief and orderly and avoid obscure expressions. Here the Cooperative Principle, which was also introduced by Grice, very important. The Cooperative Principle means that we assume that the person we are talking to speaks in good faith and has no intention of lying. So, when someone says something we know is untrue, as for example in Thomas’s example of the ambulance driver getting vomited on and exclaiming: â€Å"Great, that’s really great! That’s really made my Christmas! † (Thomas 1995:55) We know that hardly anyone enjoys getting vomit all over them so we search for an implicature, what the ambulance man really meant, in this case that Christmas was more or less ruined. This would be a failure to observe the maxim of quality since it was intentional; we do know, or at least hope that the ambulance man did not enjoy the situation. Grice was most interested in situations where the speaker deliberately fails to observe a maxim, not with the intention of deceiving or lying but rather to make the listener look for a meaning that is different from the expressed meaning. This is tied in with the conversational implicature and the process is called â€Å"flouting a maxim† (Thomas 1995:65). Another example of flouting the maxim relation would be as following: A: Do you know what time it is? B: The bananas are looking fresh today. A very blunt example but clearly show how the maxim of relation (and also manner by bluntly ignoring the question) is flouted since the listener does not give an answer that is at all relevant to the question. The implicature here could be â€Å"I have no idea, let’s talk about something else† or perhaps that the listener is ashamed of not owning a watch. Grice also speaks of â€Å"violating a maxim† (Thomas 1995:72), which is the intentional failure to observe a maxim in order to mislead someone. Jenny Thomas gives the best example with the cheating wife who assures her husband that she is not seeing another man, while in fact she is seeing another woman (Thomas 1995:73). When violating a maxim, the utterance often contains a truth in order to mislead the hearer from the truth. And lastly Grice speaks about infringing a maxim (Thomas 1995:74), which stems from the speaker’s unintentional failure to observe a maxim, thus generating undesired implicatures. This is most common when the speaker is a learner of a foreign language or is suffering from a cognitive impairment of some sort. II. Method. I have chosen various TV shows and a movie and analysed some of the funny parts of the dialogue from a pragmatic point of view. In order to do this I have used Thomas Jenny’s book Meaning in Interaction- an Introduction to Pragmatics (1995). III. Analysis Firstly I will be looking at flouting of the maxims. Bottom was a British show about the daily lives of two very disturbed people, the sexually frustrated and really awkward Richard Richard and the alcoholic and violent Edward Elisabeth Hitler. While this show relied more on slapstick and cartoonish violence similar to Tom Jerry, it also relied heavily on conversations between the two flatmates. In this scene, Richard and Eddie are visiting the local pornography store, probably for the very first time and Eddie goes up to the shop assistant. Eddie: This is a sex shop isnt it? Shop Assistant: Yes. Eddie: [slaps money down] Ill have five quids worth then! Shop Assistant: Very droll sir, Ive never heard that one before. Eddie: Havent you? Shall I tell it again? Shop Assistant: No thank you sir, Id rather have a pineapple inserted violently into my rectum. Eddie: Youve been working here too long mate. This scene starts with Eddie asking a very obvious question, implicating that his is his very first time in a sex shop. When the male shop assistant confirms this, rather tiredly, Eddie wants sex for five pounds. The flouting of a maxim lies in the shop assistants answer â€Å"Very droll sir, I’ve never heard that one before. † This of course indicates that he has indeed heard it more times that you can count, which is the implied meaning; at the same time he needs to keep a polite air about him since after all Eddie is a customer. This is flouting the maxim of quality- we all know he has heard that joke a million times before. But Eddie, probably due to years of drinking and most likely his being drunk in this scene, completely misses the implicature. Thus the shop assistant’s functions as an infringement which leads Eddie into assuming that the shop assistant actually enjoyed the joke and wants him to repeat it. In answer to that, the shop assistant here informs Eddie about the violent pineapple option. Again, Eddie misses the true point and assumes that the shop assistant is of the perverted variety since he is, after all, working in a porn shop. The pineapple phrase flouts the maxims of relation and quantity. The shop assistant also flouts maxim of quality by giving a longer answer than yes or no, while he also flouts the quantity maxim by giving Eddie a little bit too much information on what he would rather do, which was unfortunate in that setting since it is easy to believe, what with stereotyping and all, that he would actually enjoy sticking a pineapple in himself. If the shop assistant would have wanted to observe the maxims he would have answered â€Å"Yes I’ve heard that before† and then just simply â€Å"No† to the other question and thus preventing Eddie from assuming weird things.